Last Glacial Maximum - Last Major Global Climate Change

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the most recent period in earths history when the glaciers were at their thickest and the sea levels at their lowest, roughly between 24,000–18,000 calendar years ago (cal bp). During the LGM, continent-wide ice sheets covered high-latitude Europe and North America, and sea levels were between 400–450 feet (120–135 meters) lower than they are today. At the height of the Last Glacial Maximum, all of Antarctica, large parts of Europe, North America, and South America, and small parts of Asia were covered in a steeply domed and thick layer of ice. Last Glacial Maximum: Key Takeaways The Last Glacial Maximum is the most recent time in earths history when the glaciers were at their thickest.  That was approximately 24,000-18,000 years ago.  All of Antarctica, large parts of Europe, North and South America, and Asia were covered by ice.  A stable pattern of glacial ice, sea level, and carbon in the atmosphere has been in place from about 6,700 years.That pattern has been destabilized by global warming as a result of the Industrial Revolution.   Evidence The overwhelming evidence of this long-gone process is seen in sediments laid down by sea level changes all over the world, in coral reefs and estuaries and oceans; and in the vast North American plains, landscapes scraped flat by thousands of years of glacial movement. In the lead up to the LGM between 29,000 and 21,000 cal bp, our planet saw constant or slowly increasing ice volumes, with the sea level reaching its lowest level (about 450 feet below todays norm) when there was about 52x10(6) cubic kilometers more glacial ice than there is today. Characteristics of the LGM Researchers are interested in the Last Glacial Maximum because of when it happened: it was the most recent globally impacting climate change, and it happened and to some degree affected the speed and trajectory of the colonization of the American continents. The characteristics of the LGM that scholars use to help identify the impacts of such a major change include fluctuations in effective sea level, and the decrease and subsequent rise in carbon as parts per million in our atmosphere during that period. Both of those characteristics are similar—but opposite to—the climate change challenges we are facing today: during the LGM, both the sea level and percentage of carbon in our atmosphere were substantially lower than what we see today. We do not as yet know the entire impact of what that means to our planet, but the effects are currently undeniable. The table below shows the changes in effective sea level in the past 35,000 years (Lambeck and colleagues) and parts per million of atmospheric carbon (Cotton and colleagues). Years BP, Sea Level Difference, PPM Atmospheric Carbon2018, 25 centimeters, 408 ppm1950, 0, 300 ppm1,000 BP, -.21 meters -.07, 280 ppm5,000 BP, -2.38 m /-.07, 270 ppm10,000 BP, -40.81 m /-1.51, 255 ppm15,000 BP, -97.82 m /-3.24, 210 ppm20,000 BP, -135.35 m /-2.02, 190 ppm25,000 BP, -131.12 m /-1.330,000 BP, -105.48 m /-3.635,000 BP, -73.41 m /-5.55 The major cause of sea level drop during the ice ages was the movement of water out of the oceans into ice and the planets dynamic response to the enormous weight of all that ice atop our continents. In North America during the LGM, all of Canada, the southern coast of Alaska, and the top 1/4 of the United States were covered with ice extending as far south as the states of Iowa and West Virginia. Glacial ice also covered the western coast of South America, and in the Andes extending into Chile and most of Patagonia. In Europe, the ice extended as far south as Germany and Poland; in Asia ice sheets reached Tibet. Although they saw no ice, Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania were a single landmass; and mountains throughout the world held glaciers. The Progress of Global Climate Change Visitors walking on a trail that leads to the melting and rock-covered Pasterze glacier hike past a lake of glacier water in a rocky basin once filled at least 60 meters deep by glacier ice on August 27, 2016 near Heiligenblut am Grossglockner, Austria. The European Environmental Agency predicts the volume of European glaciers will decline by between 22% and 89% by 2100, depending on the future intensity of greenhouse gases.   Sean Gallup/Getty Images The late Pleistocene period experienced a sawtooth-like cycling between cool glacial and warm interglacial periods  when global temperatures and atmospheric CO2 fluctuated up to 80–100 ppm corresponding with temperature variations of 3–4 degrees Celsius (5.4–7.2 degrees Fahrenheit): increases in atmospheric CO2 preceded decreases in global ice mass. The ocean stores carbon (called carbon sequestration) when the ice is low, and so the net influx of carbon in our atmosphere which is typically caused by cooling gets stored in our oceans. However, a lower sea level also increases salinity, and that and other physical changes to the large-scale ocean currents and sea ice fields also contribute to carbon sequestration. The following is the latest understanding of the process of climate change progress during the LGM from Lambeck et al. 35,000–31,000 cal BP—slow fall in sea level (transitioning out of Ã…lesund Interstadial)31,000–30,000 cal BP—rapid fall of 25 meters, with rapid ice growth especially in Scandinavia29,000–21,000  cal BP—constant or slowly growing ice volumes, eastward and southward expansion of the Scandinavian ice sheet and the southward expansion of the Laurentide ice sheet, lowest at 2121,000–20,000 cal BP—onset of deglaciation,20,000–18,000 cal BP—short-lived sea level rise of 10-15 meters18,000–16,500 cal BP—near constant sea level16,500–14,000 cal BP—major phase of deglaciation, effective sea level change about 120 meters at an average of 12 meters per 1000 years14,500–14,000 cal BP—(Bà ¸lling- Allerà ¸d warm period), high rate of se-level  rise, average rise in sea level 40 mm annually14,000–12,500 cal BP—sea level rises ~20 meters in 1500 years12,500–11 ,500 cal BP—(Younger Dryas), a much-reduced rate of sea-level  rise11,400–8,200 cal BP—near-uniform global rise, about 15 m/1000 years8,200–6,700 cal BP—reduced rate of sea-level  rise, consistent with the final phase of North American deglaciation at 7ka6,700 cal BP–1950—progressive decrease in sea level rise1950–present—first sea rise increase in 8,000 years Global Warming and Modern Sea Level Rise By the late 1890s, the industrial revolution had begun throwing enough carbon into the atmosphere to impact the global climate and start the changes that are currently underway. By the 1950s, scientists such as Hans Suess and Charles David Keeling began to recognize the inherent dangers of human-added carbon in the atmosphere. The global mean sea level (GMSL), according to the Environmental Protection Agency, has risen nearly 10 inches since 1880, and by all measures appears to be accelerating.   Most early measures of current sea level rise have been based on changes in tides at the local level. More recent data comes from satellite altimetry that samples the open oceans, allowing for precise quantitative statements. That measurement began in 1993, and the 25-year record indicates that the global mean sea level has risen at a rate of between 3/-.4 millimeters per year, or a total of nearly 3 inches (or 7.5 cm) since records began. More and more studies indicate that unless carbon emissions are decreased, an additional 2–5 feet (.65–1.30 m) rise by 2100 is likely.   Specific Studies and Long-Term Predictions U.S. Fish and Wildlife ecologist Phillip Hughes inspects dead buttonwood trees which have succumbed to salt water incursion in Big Pine Key, Florida. Since 1963, the Florida Keys upland vegetation is being replaced by salt tolerant vegetation.   Joe Raedle/Getty Images Areas already impacted by sea level rises include the American east coast, where between 2011 and 2015, sea levels rose up to five inches (13 cm). Myrtle Beach in South Carolina experienced high tides in November 2018 which flooded their streets. In the Florida Everglades (Dessu and colleagues 2018), sea level rise has been measured at 5 in (13 cm) between 2001 and 2015. An additional impact is an increase in salt spikes changing the vegetation, due to an increase in inflow during the dry season. Qu and colleagues (2019) studied 25 tidal stations in China, Japan and Vietnam and tidal data indicate that the 1993–2016 sea level rise was 3.2 mm per year (or 3 inches).   Long-term data have been collected throughout the world, and estimates are that by 2100, a 3–6 feet (1–2 meter) rise in the Mean Global Sea Level is possible, accompanied by a 1.5–2 degree Celsius in overall warming. Some of the direst suggest a 4.5-degree rise is not impossible if carbon emissions are not reduced.  Ã‚   The Timing of the American Colonization According to the most current theories, the LGM impacted the progress of human colonization of the American continents. During the LGM, entry into the Americas was blocked by ice sheets: many scholars now believe that the colonists began entering into the Americas across what was Beringia, perhaps as early as 30,000 years ago. According to genetic studies, humans were stranded on the Bering Land Bridge during the LGM between 18,000–24,000 cal BP, trapped by the ice on the island before they were set free by the retreating ice. Sources Bourgeon L, Burke A, and Higham T. 2017. Earliest Human Presence in North America Dated to the Last Glacial Maximum: New Radiocarbon Dates from Bluefish Caves, Canada. PLOS ONE 12(1):e0169486.Buchanan PJ, Matear RJ, Lenton A, Phipps SJ, Chase Z, and Etheridge DM. 2016. The simulated climate of the Last Glacial Maximum and insights into the global marine carbon cycle. Climate of the Past 12(12):2271-2295.Cotton JM, Cerling TE, Hoppe KA, Mosier TM, and Still CJ. 2016. Climate, CO2, and the history of North American grasses since the Last Glacial Maximum. Science Advances 2(e1501346).Dessu, Shimelis B., et al. Effects of Sea-Level Rise and Freshwater Management on Long-Term Water Levels and Water Quality in the Florida Coastal Everglades. Journal of Environmental Management 211 (2018): 164–76. Print.Lambeck K, Rouby H, Purcell A, Sun Y, and Sambridge M. 2014. Sea level and global ice volumes from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci ences 111(43):15296-15303.Lindgren A, Hugelius G, Kuhry P, Christensen TR, and Vandenberghe J. 2016. GIS-based Maps and Area Estimates of Northern Hemisphere Permafrost Extent during the Last Glacial Maximum. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 27(1):6-16.Moreno PI, Denton GH, Moreno H, Lowell TV, Putnam AE, and Kaplan MR. 2015. Radiocarbon chronology of the last glacial maximum and its termination in northwestern Patagonia. Quaternary Science Reviews 122:233-249.Nerem, R. S., et al. Climate-Change–Driven Accelerated Sea-Level Rise Detected in the Altimeter Era. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115.9 (2018): 2022–25. Print.Qu, Ying, et al. Coastal Sea Level Rise around the China Seas. Global and Planetary Change 172 (2019): 454–63. Print.Slangen, Aimà ©e B. A., et al. Evaluating Model Simulations of Twentieth-Century Sea Level Rise. Part I: Global Mean Sea Level Change. Journal of Climate 30.21 (2017): 8539–63. Print.Willerslev E, Davison J, Moora M, Zobel M, Coissac E, Edwards ME, Lorenzen ED, Vestergard M, Gussarova G, Haile J et al. 2014. Fifty thousand years of Arctic vegetation and megafaunal diet. Nature 506(7486):47-51.

Womanhood and Failures through the Burden of Self Esteem...

For a young and passionate college student, expectations from peers, teachers, and parents can be intimidating and emotionally draining. For most parents, having their child succeed is a top priority, and children want to exceed parents’ expectations by achieving good grades and a high standard in school. In the poem â€Å"Suicide Note,† by Janice Mirikitani, a female Asian American college student is struggling to live up to her parents expectations. She does not receive a perfect grade point average that her parents are expecting, and she does not have the strength to face them in person. For this young college student, her strengths are not strong enough, and her will and determination are overcome by insecurities and discontent. The speaker†¦show more content†¦She feels if she was a man she would be worthy of the acceptance and â€Å"comfort† in her parent’s eyes (16). The speaker is motivated to apologize to her parents because she is consum ed by the thought that she is not good enough, and lacks confidence because she is a daughter. The speaker in the poem uses repetition to illustrate her frustrations with self esteem and confidence. Because the speaker was unable to receive a high grade point average, she is afraid to face her parents; she is disappointed in herself and repeats that she is â€Å"not good enough, [and] not smart enough† (3-4). In the speaker’s mind, her disappointment is the last straw; she knows her parents will only criticize her, but she wants them to be proud. She says, â€Å"I apologize/ for disappointing you/ I’ve worked very hard/ not good enough† (5-8). The speaker believes she is a failure in life, and she does not believe that her life is worth living in the end if she cannot achieve her goals, whether they are her goals, or her parent’s goals. The intruding repetition throughout the poem shows how the speaker truly believes in her own mind and in the minds of her parent’s, : that she is not good or strong enough to live up to her own expect ations for herself, or her parent’s expectations. She is just a sparrow in a life of failure, and her â€Å"fragile wings† are â€Å"not strong enough† to soar above the disappointment (34-35).Show MoreRelatedEssay on Ambiguous Women: The Power of the Female Narrative3068 Words   |  13 Pagesat these works raises critical questions: From where have women come? Have women liberated themselves over the past century and through what means? What has it taken for women to turn their world right-side up? 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The change in fortune of the main personage is often the consequence of a fatal flaw in his/her character, or an error of judgment called â€Å"hamartia.† The failure of the hero (or heroine) is also due to his/her â€Å"hubris,† a false sense of pride in his/her own secure position. The tragic dramatist must choose suitably heroic characters and place them in a well constructed plot, which aims at representing actionsRead MoreSda Manual Essay101191 Words   |  405 Pages......................... Church Responsible for Dealing With Sin ............................... Unconsecrated Resist Church Discipline ................................. Rules and Regulations Necessary ............................................ Self-appointed Organizations .................................................. Safeguarding the Unity of the Church ........................................... Settlement of Differences Among Members ............................. 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Assignment 3 to Assignment 10

Questions: Assignment 3 Identify the following terms International Law. public international law private international law multilateral treaty bilateral treaty convention state recognition Assignment 4 Prepare a case summary of Sei Fujii vs. State of California Assignment 5 Prepare a case summary of Gibbons vs. Ogden which may be found online Assignment 8 Write a 1-2 page essay about the CISG? When and how does it apply and when does it not apply? Assignment 9 Go to the Texas Secretary of State website and obtain the form necessary to create a new Texas Corporation. Fill out the form with the appropriate information for a fictional corporation and attach hereto. Assignment 10 Write a 1 to 1 1/2 page paper explaining the advantages of a Texas LLC? How would it benefit a new business? Answers: Assignment 3: 1. International Law: International law can be referred as the set of rules that are generally accepted and regarded as binding in the relations between the nations and between the states. The international law provides the framework for the organised international relations and the stable practice within the nations or states. It can be said that the legal system of the state can differ from the international law. The governance of international law is basically consent-based and others are obligatory (Allen, 2013). 2. Public International Law: Public international law is concerned with the conduct and the structure of the sovereign states. The public international law governs the relationship between the international entities and the states. There are several legal fields that are included in the law such as international humanitarian law or the laws of war, international criminal law, law of sea, treaty law, and the international human rights law (Wallace Martin-Ortega, 2013). 3. Private International Law: Private international law can be referred as the legal framework that is composed of case law, uniform documents, legal guides, model laws, protocols, conventions, practice and customs as well as instruments and documents that can regulate the relationships between the individuals in the international context (Shaw, 2003). It is also referred as the conflict of laws and it is concerned with the relations across various legal jurisdictions between corporate entities or individuals. 4. ultilateral Treaties: A multilateral treaty can be referred as the treaty among three or more sovereign state parties. There are certain obligations that are maintained by each sovereign state party. Some of the examples of the multilateral treaties are Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the Geneva Convention, and United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea etc (Wallace Martin-Ortega, 2013). 5. Bilateral Treaties: A bilateral treaty can be referred as the treaty that is conducted strictly between two state parties. The two parties can be two international organisations, to states or one international organisation and one state. It is also referred as the contractual treaty (Wallace Martin-Ortega, 2013). A bilateral treaty can become a multilateral treaty if new parties are added in the treaty. 6. Convention: The convention can be referred as the formal meeting of the political parties, delegates, representatives and the professionals. It is the formal assembly of the delegates and various representatives for discussing a specific issue or matter that is a common concern matter. 7. State: State is basically referred as the organised community that lives under the same government and under certain rules and regulations. Some of the states have sovereignty and these states are members of federal union. There can also be secular branches of government within the states like the civilian institutes and the churches (Shaw, 2003). The states govern the human societies and various rules and regulations are also implemented in order maintain the law within the state. In recent years, the nation-state framework is predominant in the society. 8. Recognition: Recognition can be referred as the process where various facts gain the legal status after being accepted by the law. Acquisition of a territory and sovereignty over the region, statehood etc can be considered under the function of recognition (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014). Conforming to the statehood criteria is a political one and after recognition, the acknowledgement of sovereignty is also made. In case of statehood, the international recognition is also very important according to the declaratory theory of recognition. In case of recognition, an already existing situation or fact is accepted or conformed (Fabry, 2013). Assignment 4: Case Summary of SeiFujii vs. State of California: Here the case summary of SeiFujii vs. State of California can be presented. The case was held in an intermediate appellate court where it was stated that the violation of the alien land law occurred in terms of the human rights provisions of the United Nations Charter and thus the decision was reversed (Justia Law, 2015). In the State Supreme Court, the State of California appealed regarding the ownership of the land. The racial discrimination was prohibited in the 14th Amendment of the US constitution and thus the invalidity of the California alien law was established. In 1948, Mr. Fuji purchased a real estate property in California. Under the US naturalisation law, Mr. Fuji was ineligible for citizenship in the USA. Mr. Fuji bought the land, under the California alien land law and thus he appealed to the court stating if the US constitution is violated by the California law (Justia Law, 2015). In such circumstances, the United Nations Charter will be applicable automatically. So the main issue was regarding the validity of the alien land law of California. The provisions of the preamble states in Article 1, that there is conflict between the alien land law and the UN Charter. Whether the treaty is self-executing or not, it is determined by applying the rules. It is also evident that the standing alone can be enforced in the court but the treaties cannot supersede the local laws unless they are self-executing. It is requested by the UN Charter that observance of human rights are promoted with fundamental freedom and they should be consistent with t he laws. According to the 14th amendment of the US Constitution it is accepted that the there is violation in the law (Scocal.stanford.edu, 2015). It was also contended that if the alien residents possess the land then there is no indication of any form of dangerous to the interests of the state. It was also contended that there was no indication of the wrongful use of the land in terms injuring the welfare, safety or the morals of the public. The designing and the administration of the California law is done as an instrument that can resolve the cases of racial discrimination. Assignment 5: Case Summary of Gibbons vs. Ogden: Here the case summary of the Gibbons vs. Ogden can be provided. It was one of the famous cases where landmark decision was made where the power was held by the United States Supreme Court for regulating interstate commerce. The power was granted by the United States Constitutions Commerce Clause and it encompassed the navigation power. Some of the United States most capable and admired attorneys argued the case. Robert Fulton and Robert R. Livingston were granted the exclusive rights by the New York for the steam boat navigation on the waters of New York State. They also petitioned territorial and states legislature for the same monopolies in the line of steamboats. However the petition was accepted by only Orleans Territory (Lawnix.com, 2015). Ogden was assigned the rights by Livingston to navigate between various ports of New Jersey and New York. Three years later the partnership collapsed. Aaron Ogden filed a complaint in the New York court for restraining Thomas Gibbons from navigating on those waters. It was contended by the lawyer of Ogden that some laws were passed by the states on the interstate issues and a concurrent power should be fully owned by the state on such matters for executing the right decisions. Daniel Webster, the lawyer of Gibbons argued that according to Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution, Congress had the exclusive national power over the interstate commerce and there can be contradictions and confusions in the local regulation policies if argued otherwise (Lawnix.com, 2015). The Court of Errors of New York and the Court of Chancery of New York found in favour of the Ogden. An injunction for the restriction of Gibbons was issued in terms of operating the boats. Afterwards, Gibbons applied in the Supreme Court and he presented the same arguments contending the fact of conflicts between the federal law and the monopoly. The case was delayed for some period and afterwards the meaning of the commerce clause was discussed in 1824 and at that time the issue had become of a greater and wider interest. The U.S. Supreme Court made his decision in the favour of Gibbons. The main argument of the power of the Congress was in terms of the Commerce Clause. But it was also held in court that commerce can be more than mere traffic. Here a broader definition included the navigation as well. The case was very important as the case marked the start of a 40-year period of history where the ability of the federal government was limited by the Supreme Court. Under the Commerce Clause, the Supreme Court changed the federal authority clause. Thus the case was significant due to such reasons. Assignment 6: Case Summary of Worldwide Volkswagen vs. Woodson: Worldwide Volkswagen Corp vs. Woodson was a United States Supreme Court case involving various considerations and procedural issues and strict product liability. The case brief can be given here. Kay and Harry Robinson bought a new Audi 100 LS in 1976 from Seaway Volkswagen from New York. The following year the Audi was struck y a drunk driver from the rear the following year when Kay Robinson passed through Oklahoma to Arizona. The collision did not injure any of the Robinsons but the door of the Audi jammed due to the crash and thus it was shut and it also resulted in a gas tank puncture (Lawnix.com, 2015). Due to the gas leak, Kay Robinson and her two children Sam and Eva were severely burned and trapped in the car. The Robinson family did not sued the drunk driver as he had no asset or insurance but they sued the manufacturers of the car, stating that the product was defective and that is the main reason for the injuries of the family especially the location of the gas tank that was just below the trunk and it increased the chances of puncture and gas leak. The Robinson family sued the Audi manufacturer and also Volkswagen (importer) along with Worldwide Volkswagen Corp. (regional distributor) and Seaway Volkswagen (retailer dealer). The lawsuit was filed in the Creek County, Oklahoma. When the defendants of the case were brought they stated that limitations on states jurisdiction will be offended if Oklahoma exercise personal jurisdiction over them according to the Constitution of the United States. So they asked to be removed from the lawsuit (Lawnix.com, 2015). The constitutional claim of Seaway and Worldwide was rejected by the district court whereas the Supreme Court reversed the decision and stated the Oklahoma did not have the jurisdiction over Worldwide and Seaway. Assignment 7 The rule of strict liability is the standard for incurring liability either in the civil or criminal context. According to this rule, any person should be made liable for any damage caused by such acts of the person regardless of the fact that any negligence or fault on the part of such person. In the tort law, the imposition of strict liability depends on the evidence of the occurrence of tort given by the claimant that makes the defendant liable. This rule of strict liability was established by the House of Lords in the case of Rylands v Fletcher (Rylands v Fletcher, 1868). Negligence on the other hand, refers to the failure of any person to exercise due care which any other reasonable man under similar circumstances would have exercised. The law of negligence was illustrated in the case of Donoghue v. Stevenson (Donoghue v. Stevenson, 1932) , where the House of Lords stated that reasonable foreseeable harm needs to be compensated. According to the rule of strict liability, the plaintiff only is required to prove that the damage has occurred due to the defendant. It is not necessary for the plaintiff to prove that the defendant did not take due care to avoid the act. Even if the defendant had taken proper care, he would be liable for the damage under this rule (gmu, n.d.). However, in the case of negligence, there are three steps to prove the defendant was liable. Firstly the plaintiff has to prove that damage has occurred. Secondly, he has to prove that the defendant had a duty to care under the given circumstances and finally it is to be proved that the damage was caused due to the negligent act of the defendant. Also the standard to contributory negligence is also taken into account when the plaintiff has contributed to the negligent act of the defendant. Hence the defenses available for a defendant are more under the rule of negligence than under the rule o strict liability. Assignment 8 The term CISG refers to the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods. The primary objective of the CISG is to give new, consistent and just regime for the contracts in the sphere of international sale of goods. Hence this convention makes significant contribution to the introduction of certainty in the commercial exchanges and also decreases transaction costs (Ferrari, 2012). The contract of sale is an extremely essential part of international trade in most countries regardless of the level of tradition or economic development. For this reason the CISG is considered as the core conventions of international trade law and it is desired that all countries adopt this convention. This convention was the consequence of the legislative efforts which began during the twentieth century. The text of the convention was such that it balanced the interests of the buyers and sellers and further reformed the contract laws at the national level. The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods generally applies to the contracts for international sale of goods when the private international law rules apply to the laws of the contracting state or when the contractual parties opt for these regulations not considering their nationality or place of business. In the last situation, the CISG would assist by providing a neutral body of rules which can be easily accepted due to the transnational nature and the available interpretative materials. The contracts for international sales of goods between private businesses are governed by the CSIG. However, the sales relating to customers or the sale of services or sale of some specific kind of goods are excluded in this regard. The convention does apply to contracts of sale between parties whose place of business is in different contracting countries. Further the Convention applies by virtue of the choice of the parties. The validity of the contract or the effects of the contract on the property in the sold goods which are essential factors in relation to the international sale of goods are not included in the scope of the Convention. The CISG also deals with the formation of the contract and the conditions of offer and acceptance. Another essential part of the Convention deals with the obligations of the parties to the contract. Among the duties of the sellers the duty to deliver goods in accordance with the quality and quantity is incorporated. It also includes the transfer of property in the goods and other required documents. The duties of the buyer comprises of payment of the price, taking the delivery etc. Additionally, this portion of the Convention also includes common rules relating to the remedies in case of any breach. The party which has suffered damage might claim damages, performance, part performance or avoidance of the contract. Further rules include the passing of risk, damages, exemption from the performance of the contract or anticipatory breach of contract. The CISG further permits the freedom for the form of the contract. The application of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods extends to the international transactions only. It does not include within itself the recourse to the rules of private international law for those contracts that fall within its ambit. The international contracts or contracts with valid choice of other law that are not included in the CISG application will not be in any way affected by the Convention. Further the domestic contracts are also not affected by the Convention. Assignment 10: Benefits of Texas LLC: The limited liability company (LLC) law has been adopted by Texas like every other state in the U.S. Thus the business unit that will operate in Texas will also have the choice of operating under LLC with other traditional choices like corporation, partnership and sole proprietorship. For many small business units LLS can be very attractive choice as it can offer various benefits to the corporation (Residual-rewards.com, 2015). Here it can be said that the limited liability corporations have much more flexibility and they also enjoy the same protection from the creditors and there is also flow-through tax treatment in case of partnership. But the flexibility of the Texas LLC is the most effective quality of the operation. The public support is also given by the state of Texas to the Texas LLC. Here the benefits of the Texas LLC can be provided. Name Protection: In the state of Texas, when a company is registered as a limited liability company, protection is provided to the name chosen of the company as no other company can select the name in the state. The protection of the name can ensure the protection of the image of the brand along with the reputation of the company. Tax Advantages: The business also receives tax benefits after forming an LLC in Texas. The business expenses and the operating cost can be deduced from the businesss gross revenue in a Texas LLC. In the LLC of Texas, the depreciation can also be deduced from the assets of the company Protection of Personal Assets: The business structure of the limited liability company in Texas meets the regulations of the state but the owners and the members of the company also receives the protection. If a lawsuit is filed against the Texas LLC then there is benefit of the protection of the assets of the LLC Company. Secretary of State Support: When a business is registered in the Texas LLC then the business also registers with the state and the company receives the support system of the state. The protection is provided under the set provisions of the Texas Miscellaneous Corporation Laws Act (TMCLA) and the Texas Business Corporation Act (TBCA). Flexibility in the Choices of Profit: It is known that the Federal law sets the business structure of the limited liability company. The state of Texas adopts the same law, allowing the businesses for choosing the business structure of the LLC. Thus there is flexibility of choice as the company can decide on the structure of a partnership or a corporation (Companiesinc.com, 2015). No Requirement of Record keeping: There is no need for the limited liability company in Texas to keep the copious and minute records. Thus these are the main benefits of the Texas LLC. Thus it can be said that if a new business unit tries to open a new business as a Texas LLC then various benefits can be received by the new business unit especially if the business unit intends to add partners in the company. The company can be protected from the lawsuits and debts. The members get the protection from the liability and a multi-tiered ownership is also allowed in the company. The protection of name can establish the brand image of the company in the market which can be very beneficial for the new organisation (Companiesinc.com, 2015). References Allen, S. (2013).International law. Harlow, Essex, England: Pearson Education. Companiesinc.com,. (2015).Texas LLC - Incorporate a Texas Limited Liability Company or LLC. Retrieved 31 January 2015, from https://www.companiesinc.com/llc/texas.asp Encyclopedia Britannica,. (2014).international law :: Recognition. Retrieved 30 January 2015, from https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/291011/international-law/233507/Recognition Fabry, M. (2013). Theorizing state recognition.Int. Theory,5(01), 165-170. doi:10.1017/s1752971913000080 Justia Law,. (2015).Sei Fujii v. State of California. Retrieved 30 January 2015, from https://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/2d/38/718.html Lawnix.com,. (2015).Gibbons v. Ogden Case Brief Summary. Retrieved 30 January 2015, from https://www.lawnix.com/cases/gibbons-ogden.html Lawnix.com,. (2015).World-Wide Volkswagen Corp. v. Woodson Case Brief Summary. Retrieved 31 January 2015, from https://www.lawnix.com/cases/world-wide-volkswagen-woodson.html Residual-rewards.com,. (2015).Texas LLC advantages and disadvantages. Retrieved 31 January 2015, from https://www.residual-rewards.com/texas-llc.html Scocal.stanford.edu,. (2015).Sei Fujii v. State of California - 38 Cal.2d 718 - Thu, 04/17/1952 | California Supreme Court Resources. Retrieved 30 January 2015, from https://scocal.stanford.edu/opinion/sei-fujii-v-state-california-26246 Shaw, M. (2003).International law. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Wallace, R., Martin-Ortega, O. (2013).International law. London: Sweet Maxwell.

The Concept of Wireless Networking and Computing †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Concept of Wireless Networking and Computing. Answer: The concept of Wireless Networking, Wireless Computing and Wireless Access Point may be known to people but what is exactly these Wireless Technologies depict. Network exists so that the data could be send from one to another place is what the basic concept of data communication stands for. With this kind of connection, all of these devices will be able to be controlled remotely and easily (Liang Yu, 2015). Our TV, refrigerator, Air Conditioner, even for some other things such as windows and door, will be able to be controlled via our personal device. Wireless network utilizes some specific equipment such as NICs Routers in place of wires like optical and copper (Hu Qian, 2014). Transmissions of data using electromagnetic waves in open space, carrying the information send/ received over a well defined frequency band channesls. Here, we are going to discuss the use of Wireless technologies and the way they enhances our daily life (De Judicibus et al., 2013). Explaining further the d ata communication components, possible wireless technologies used in various places. Data communications can be achieved through a process called network. For more cost saving and mobility wireless technologies were implemented. Wireless communication/Wireless networks have been used since 1876, and has been rapidly and widely used to develop wireless network computers (Sutaria et al., 2014). Wireless refers to the method of transferring information between computing devices such as PDA (Personal Data Assistant) and data sources like an agency database server without having a physical connection or wires. Wireless Technology transmits information generally by using radio waves without using cables or wiring. Data Standards of wireless communications include Bluetooth, WiMax and DECT (Chen et al., 2015). Examples of devices that are generally used as wireless technologies are RFID, Bluetooth, WirelessHD/WiGig, Satellites, Cellular, Wi-Fi based wireless LANs and WMAN. Implementation of applications of radio wireless technologies are GPS units, wireless computers, keybo ards, headsets, headphones, television broadcasts, etc. There are many advantages of using wireless technology for computer networks: 1. Mobility and 2, Cost-savings. Freely moving within home, office, business or city, maintaining a proper connection to other computers on the same network systems (Jiang et al., 2015) all these can be sorted by using a wireless network. Sometimes cabling can be expensive and long distance coverage gets tough, in difficult level terrains or in well established organization so it may save some considerable amount for using a wireless network instead in a suitable environment that is provided. Wide Area Networks (WANs) using wireless technology means one have to pay access to the existing telecommunications infrastructure. The radio spectrum is therefore divided into sub-bands which are based on each frequency range, suitable for the given sets of application. Suitability of the band can be determines the given frequencies by the functional process of the atmospheric propagation characteristics, as well as system aspects, like the required antenna size and power limitations. This Increases number of mobile radio communication systems used in our daily life. Door openers in garage, cordless telephones, remote controllers for home entertainment equipment, pagers, walkie-talkies, and mobile phones are all examples of mobile radio communication systems (Chen, 2013). However, the complexity, cost, performance and types of services offered by mobile systems are decreasing. Wi-Fi- Networks use the Radio Technologies to transmit and receive data at a high speed: IEEE 802.1lb, IEEE 802.1la and IEEE 802.1.lg Typical uses of wireless technologies include: Wireless access point for a home or small business to the internet for more than one desktops, tablets, mobile phone and laptops. Physically separate buildings such as mobile sites, farm buildings, business premises are linked via wireless networks. Public places Hotspots for restaurants, parks, hotels etc (Pathan, 2016). Wireless ISP infrastructure. Remote access to equipments like device controllers or remote sensors such as irrigation systems, self closing doors, temperature sensors, CCTV. Analyzing possible wireless technologies includes: RFID- Electromagnetic fields to identify and track tags attached to objects automatically by using Radio-frequency identification (RFID). RFID are attached to an object and are used to track and manage assets, people, electronic devices etc (Tan Wu, 2013). These are usually affixed over cars, computers, mobiles etc. Used in various other applications such as: Access management, Tracking of goods, Tracking of person and animals, Contactless payment, Airport Baggage tracking logistics, Tracking bills and processes, Human Identification, Institutions and Complement to barcode. Bluetooth- It is a kind of wireless technology that exchanges data over short distances by use of short-wavelengths from fixed or mobile devices building Personal Area Network (PAN) from wave length of 2.4 to 2.485 GHz. It is packet based protocol used in phones, laptops, tablets or any digital wireless device using the radio technology. Master BR/EDR Bluetooth devices can communicate with almost seven devices at a time. It is easy to access and user friendly. WirelessHD/WiGig- The Wireless Gigabit Alliance (WiGig) was a trade association that develops and promotes the adoption of multi-gigabit per second. Speeds up the wireless communication technology operating on unlicensed frequency band. This is used for wireless transmission of high-definition video content for consumer electronic products. The founder initially intended to use this technology for Consumer Electronic devices, PCs and portable devices (Khan Pathan, 2013). Satellite- Satellite wireless communication is artificial satellite relaying and amplifying radio telecommunication signals via transponders, creating communication channel within the different locations on the Earth by source transmitter and receiver. Telephonic application, televisions, Radio broadcasting, Radio transmission, Internet access and military access, some of the highly confidential information are transmitted using the satellite device for protection against hacking (Pathan, 2016). Cellular- Cellular network or mobile networks are commonly used communication network system. The network is then distributed over land areas knows as cells, each served by at least one transceiver that is fixed in location or base stations. This station provides network coverage which is used for transmission of voice data and other information. Cellular network offers some desirable features like: larger capacity the single transmitter, mobile devices uses less power and larger coverage area than single terrestrial transmitter. Wi-Fi-based wireless LAN- This links two or more devices within limited area like school, computer labs, office or at home. This makes flexible for users to roam around within the local area coverage and still be connected to the wider internet. There are four types of wireless LANs: Infrastructure, Peer-to-Peer, Wireless Distribution system and Bridge. WMAN- This is a wireless broadband used in wider areas like stations, airport, railway stations, giving access with identified security pass codes of the mobile (Stallings, Tahiliani, 2014). We can build our own wireless network system, all we need is: Computer- First need is devices and wireless-capable computers like wireless access points or routers. By the use of dedicated hardware we can build our own access point or router. Wireless card- Wireless expansion cards or wireless adapters can handle the processing of the data, which may be transmitted or received over some wireless networks. These card supports one or more of the 802.11 standards therefore has unusual characteristics regarding the used chipset, maximum output power, receive sensitivity, speed, etc. Antenna- Wireless computers can use the antennas to improve reception and transmission quality. Each antenna has radiation of descriptive pattern, with Omni-directional (360) which are commonly used. Antennas are directional or sectaries, with transmission and reception occurring in a narrower and more specific direction. Determination of the output power (EIRP) of a wireless device is by gain of an antenna with combination with output power of wireless cards (Jiang et al., 2015). Pigtail- Pigtail is necessary to connect wireless card to an antenna. Some pigtails can connect directly to the antenna by the wireless card, while some others connect from another pigtail to the antenna, allowing distant placement of the antenna from the given wireless card. Software- Software helps in running the wireless hardware. Some drivers are needed for wireless cards and a network-capable operating system. Finding a link to the driver for wireless cards and various other operating systems. Disadvantages of wireless communication are there still remains a safety issue regarding wireless devices since data loss is common during the transmission. Even the security of the data access is under attack by various unauthorized malicious cyber hackers and websites. And since there are no evidence regarding the health risk associated of using wireless devices in our daily life, it is wiser to be always aware of the concern and consequences that may cause damage (Pathan, 2016). The advantages of Wireless network system hence provide Mobility, Ease of installation, Flexibility, Costing, Security, Reliability, Roaming and Speed. Since the simplicity and the cost effective way that connects to internet without the requirement of wire, the wireless connection has grown wide and hence its impacts in our daily life. Freedom of users is hence prior to any industry or organization for the development and well being of the population (Tan Wu, 2013). So we conclude that use of wireless communication and some suitable protocols, installation and maintenance cost can be collectively reduced without degenerating the performance of the network system. And it provides the flexibility in the factory automation restructuring and planning. As in recommendation the best way for higher development in this wireless network system is to bring 5G wireless network system in use and reassure the security and safety for the public. The drawbacks can be overcome by the wireless 5G network which enhances the speed and security of the network system. 5G technology is trending in availability in the market on 2020 at affordable cost and with more facilities. The security of the network system has to be better. The encryption technology has to be larger as compared to 3G or $G technology because. Now a day cyber attack and hacking is major issue and because of this transmission gets tough as there is always a chance of data loss in the process of transmission. References Chen, L. (2013).Wireless network security. New York, Higher Educational Press. Chen, M., Zhang, Y., Hu, L., Taleb, T., Sheng, Z. (2015). Cloud-based wireless network: Virtualized, reconfigurable, smart wireless network to enable 5G technologies.Mobile Networks and Applications,20(6), 704-712. De Judicibus, D., Leopardi, S., Modeo, L., Pergola, N. (2013).U.S. Patent No. 8,352,360. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Hu, R. Q., Qian, Y. (2014). An energy efficient and spectrum efficient wireless heterogeneous network framework for 5G systems.IEEE Communications Magazine,52(5), 94-101. Jiang, D., Xu, Z., Li, W., Chen, Z. (2015). Network coding-based energy-efficient multicast routing algorithm for multi-hop wireless networks.Journal of Systems and Software,104, 152-165. Khan, S., Pathan, A. K. (2013).Wireless networks and security. Berlin: Springer. Liang, C., Yu, F. R. (2015). Wireless network virtualization: A survey, some research issues and challenges.IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials,17(1), 358-380. Pathan, A. S. K. (Ed.). (2016).Security of self-organizing networks: MANET, WSN, WMN, VANET. CRC press. Pathan, A. S. K. (Ed.). (2016).Security of self-organizing networks: MANET, WSN, WMN, VANET. CRC press. Stallings, W., Tahiliani, M. P. (2014).Cryptography and network security: principles and practice(Vol. 6). London: Pearson. Sutaria, J., Nanjundeswaran, S., Gustafson, B., Van Gent, R. (2014).U.S. Patent No. 8,831,561. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Tan, C. C., Wu, J. (2013). Security in RFID networks and communications. InWireless Network Security(pp. 247-267). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.